The first article in this series traces the historical development of human rights in international law, situating instruments like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) within both their achievements and limitations. The second article examines three of the six categories that most human rights fall into. This article discusses the categories of: (4) the right to self-determination, (5) the right to ecological resources, and (6) the right to inhabitation of land.

4. Right to Self-Determination

In the UDHR^[1], several delineated rights fall under 'Right to Self-Determination,' including:

1. the recognition of all humans as born free and equal in dignity and rights, endowed with reason and conscience (Article 1);
2. the right to take part in government directly or through freely chosen representatives, with equal access to public service (Article 21.1-21.2);
3. the right to social security and realization of economic, social, and cultural rights indispensable for dignity and personality development (Article 22);
4. the right to work and free choice of employment under just and favorable conditions (Article 23.1); and
5. the right to freely participate in cultural life and enjoy the arts while sharing in scientific advancement (Article 27.1).

In the ICESCR^[2], the following enumerated rights can be organized under 'Right to Self-Determination,' including:

1. the fundamental right of all peoples to self-determination, allowing them to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development (Article 1.1);
2. the right to work, including the opportunity to gain living through freely chosen work (Article 6.1);
3. the right to an adequate standard of living including adequate food, clothing, and housing, with continuous improvement of living conditions (Article 11.1);
4. the right to education directed toward full development of human personality and participation in free society (Article 13.1); and
5. the right to take part in cultural life and enjoy benefits of scientific progress (Article 15.1a-15.1b).

In the UNDRIP^[3], rights that align with 'Right to Self-Determination' include:

1. the right to self-determination, allowing Indigenous peoples to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development (Article 3);
2. the right to autonomy or self-government in matters relating to internal and local affairs, including financing of autonomous functions (Article 4);
3. the right to maintain and strengthen distinct political, legal, economic, social, and cultural institutions (Article 5);
4. the right not to be subjected to forced assimilation or destruction of culture (Article 8.1);
5. the right to participate in decision-making through representatives chosen by themselves according to their own procedures (Article 18);
6. the right to maintain and develop political, economic, and social systems, and to engage freely in traditional and other economic activities (Article 20.1); and
7. the right to determine and develop priorities and strategies for exercising their right to development (Article 23).

5. Right to Ecological Resources

In the UDHR, the right that aligns with 'Right to Ecological Resources' is the right to an adequate standard of living, including food, clothing, housing, and medical care (Article 25.1).

In the ICESCR, rights that align with this category include:

1. the inherent right of all peoples to enjoy and utilize fully and freely their natural wealth and resources (Article 25);
2. the fundamental right to be free from hunger with measures to improve methods of production, conservation, and distribution of food through efficient development and utilization of natural resources (Article 11.2);
3. the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, including improvement of environmental and industrial hygiene (Article 12.1-12.2); and
4. the right to take part in cultural life and enjoy the benefits of scientific progress (Article 15.1).

In the UNDRIP, rights that align with 'Right to Ecological Resources' include:

1. the right to own, use, develop, and control the lands, territories, and resources they possess by reason of traditional ownership or occupation (Article 26.2);
2. the right to redress for lands, territories, and resources confiscated without free, prior, and informed consent (Article 28.1);
3. the right to conservation and protection of the environment and productive capacity of their lands or territories and resources (Article 29.1); and
4. the right to maintain, control, protect, and develop their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge, and traditional cultural expressions, including knowledge of fauna and flora properties (Article 31.1).

6. Right to Inhabit Land

In the UDHR, several delineated rights fall under 'Right to Inhabit Land,' including:

1. the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each State (Article 13.1);
2. the right to leave any country, including one's own, and to return to one's country (Article 13.2);
3. the right to own property alone as well as in association with others (Article 17.1); and
4. protection from arbitrary deprivation of property (Article 17.2).

In the ICESCR, the right that aligns with 'Right to Inhabit Land' is the recognition that all peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources without prejudice to obligations arising out of international economic cooperation and international law (Article 1.2).

In the UNDRIP, rights that align with 'Right to Inhabit Land' include:

1. the right to the lands, territories and resources which they have traditionally owned, occupied or otherwise used (Article 26.1);
2. the requirement that States give legal recognition and protection to these lands, territories and resources (Article 26.3); and
3. the right to determine and develop priorities and strategies for the development or use of their lands or territories and other resources (Article 32.1).

Thus, as outlined in this and the previous article in this series, many of the rights enumerated in three of the international human rights instruments can be categorized into one of six categories. Subsequent articles in this series examine how some aspects of the impact of the FiveBecomings (Pañchabhūmi)^[4] projects can be assessed using these six categories of the international human rights lens.

[1] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations (1948).

[2] International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, United Nations (1966).

[3] Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, United Nations (2007).

[4] K. Mitra, Restoring the Interconnected Wellbeing of Humans and Ecologies Through FiveBecomings, Ecosymbionts all Regenerate Together (EaRTh): DOI-EaRTh082025-010 (26 Aug., 2025).